FINITE RELATIVE CLAUSES AS POST-MODIFIERS
The relativizers
Finite relative clauses are introduced by a relative pronoun or adverb (called a relativizer). English uses several different relativizers: who, whom, whose, which, that, where, when, why and zero (0). The relativizer refers back to the head of the nominal group, which is termed the antecedent, for example, ‘people’ in the people who were waiting.
Who (objective whom) is used after an animate, particularly a human, head noun. The relativizer who is not omitted when it functions as subject in the relative clause:
Perhaps the people who were waiting are still there. (perhaps *the people were waiting are still there)
The only exceptions are introduced by unstressed there or by a cleft. They are on the borderline between dialectal and very colloquial speech, and are not standard uses:
There’s a man outside (0) wants to speak to you. It was John (0) told me about you.
Whom is always used when it directly precedes a preposition, as in 1. This is a formal use. In less formal speech and writing whom is commonly avoided by ‘stranding’ the preposition and replacing whom by who, that or zero, as in 2. Compare:
1 the students with whom I share a flat.
2 the students who I share a flat with/that I share a flat with/(0) I share a flat with
Which is used with inanimate heads in both subject and object functions in the relative clause, and before a preposition. The same alternatives are open for which as for whom:
the matter which concerns us at present (subject)
there is one matter which I must bring up (object)
Their life was one for which she was unprepared. (following a preposition)
Their life was one that/which/(0) she was unprepared for.
That is used in both subject and object functions and for both animate and inanimate heads in integrated relative clauses. It is a useful alternative to who(m) and which when the speaker prefers to avoid the animate–inanimate distinction:
The large Alsatian that belongs to the people next door is rather fierce.
However, that is not normally used after a personal proper name, as such a use is typically non-defining. Neither is that used following a preposition.
As a relative pronoun, that is more common than which in spoken and in much written English, but which is said to be more common than that in academic writing. When the antecedent is a demonstrative pronoun, that tends to be avoided (What’s that [that] you have there?), zero being preferred over both that and which (What’s that [0] you have there?). When the antecedent is an indefinite pronoun, that is more common than which in subject function (Anything that might happen . . .) whereas zero is common in object function (Everything [0] we know . . .).
Zero (that is, the non-use of the relative pronouns whom, which or that) is common practice when these pronouns function as object in the relative clause. Compare the various options, ranging from most formal to informal, in the following example:
the girl to whom I lent my coat the girl whom I lent my coat to the girl that I lent my coat to the girl (0) I lent my coat to
When and where as relativizers introduce circumstantial information, of time and place respectively: the place where he was born; the time when he’s sure to be at home.
Why occurs as a relative only after the noun ‘reason’ and the like – cause, explanation, excuse: There’s no reason why we shouldn’t be friends. Many speakers consider it superfluous after ‘reason’.
Whose is the possessive form and is used not only to refer to animate head nouns but also to inanimates, as a shorter alternative to of which + determiner:
children whose parents both go out to work
the houses whose roofs were in need of repair
