Fricatives

The most striking feature among fricatives is that ALL varieties (except WSAfE) treat /θ/ and /ð/ as something other than an interdental fricative. /θ ð/ are realized similarly as a pair as follows:

 in CFE, InSAfE, IndE, PakE;

[t d] in EAfrE, GhE, LibSE (here [t] occurs variably with [θ]), Kamtok, SgE, MalE, PhlE;

Variably as  for /θ/ and  for /ð/ in StHE, BlSAfE, GhE and GhP; Affricate realizations [tθ] and [dð] are reported as lesser variants in GhE and GhP.

 

/θ/ is realized as [f] word-fi nally in some words in EAfrE, GhE, LibSE, GhP and SgE.

In EAfrE /θ/ and /ð/ may be realised as [t s f] and [d z v] respectively. Other changes to fricatives are less widespread:

Velar fricatives [x] and [ɤ] occur in WSAfE and CFE, mainly in borrowings, place names, proper names etc.

 

H may be voiced in WSAfE, CFE, BlSAfE, InSAfE, IndE, PakE; it may also be murmured in the last three varieties. H may also be dropped in InSAfE, IndE and MalE, especially by Tamil speakers. In IndE it may be dropped in initial position with tonal adjustments, amongst Panjabi speakers. H may be substituted by [j] in CFE or by [j] or [w] amongst Tamil speakers of InSAfE, IndE and MalE. It may be dropped before [j] in CamE (e.g. in human). Hypercorrection may also occur in those varieties that drop H.

 

F occurs as an approximant (‘antedental’) in CFE, InSAfE and IndE. In northern NigE F is realized as [f], [p] or  ; for many speakers of IndE as [p^h]; and in basilectal PhlE as [p].

 

V has the following realizations:

an approximant [ʋ] in InSAfE and IndE;

[v] or [f] in northern NigE;

[b] or [f] in GhP, especially intervocalically;

[bh] amongst Bengali speakers of IndE;

[b] in basilectal PhlE;

[v] or [w] in StHE, IndE and amongst Tamil speakers of MalE.

 

/ʃ Ʒ/ have the following realizations:

[s z] variably in CFE, BlSAfE, EAfrE and IndE;

 in GhE.

 

In addition /ʃ/ may occur as [z] occasionally in CFE, CamE and (in final position) in MalE. It may occur as [s] occasionally in CFE and GhE.

Z occurs as [ʤ] occasionally in IndE and amongst Malay and Chinese speakers of MalE.

مواضيع ذات صلة

Spelling and Pronunciation SUMMARY

American English vs. British English

Morphological Basis of English Spelling

Phoneme–Grapheme Correspondences in English Vowels

Phoneme–Grapheme Correspondences in English Consonants

Spelling and Pronunciation Irregularity of English Spelling

Structural Factors in Second Language Phonology SUMMARY

Perception

Optimality Theory (OT)

Ontogeny Phylogeny Model (OPM)

Markedness

Hypercontrast